Cold Dark Matter (CDM)

Cold Dark Matter (CDM) The universe is made up of at least two kinds of matter. Primarily, theres the material we can detect, which astronomers call baryonic matter. Its thought of as ordinary matter because its made of protons and neutrons, which can be measured. Baryonic matter includes stars and galaxies, plus all the objects they contain. However, there is also stuff out there in the universe that cant be detected through normal observational means. Yet, it does exist because astronomers can measure its gravitational effect on baryonic matter. Astronomers call this material dark matter because, well, its dark. It doesnt reflect or emit light. This mysterious form of matter presents some major challenges to understanding a great many things about the universe, going right back to the beginning, some 13.7 billion years ago.   The Discovery of Dark Matter Decades ago, astronomers found that there wasnt enough mass in the universe to explain things like the rotation of stars in  galaxies and the movements of star clusters. Mass affects an objects motion through space, whether its a galaxy or a star or a planet. Judging by the way some galaxies rotated, for example, it appeared that there was more mass out there somewhere. But, it wasnt being detected. It was somehow missing from the mass inventory they assembled using stars and nebulae to assign a galaxy a given mass. Dr. Vera Rubin and her team were observing galaxies when they first noticed a difference between expected rotation rates (based on estimated masses of those galaxies) and the actual rates they observed. Researchers began to dig more deeply into figuring out where all the missing mass had gone. They considered that perhaps our  understanding of physics, i.e. general relativity, was flawed, but too many other things didnt add up. So, they decided that perhaps the mass was still there, but simply not visible. While it is still possible that we are missing something fundamental in our theories of gravity, the second option has been more palatable to physicists. Out of that revelation was born the idea of dark matter. Theres observational evidence for it around galaxies, and theories and models point to the involvement of dark matter early in the universes formation. So, astronomers and cosmologists know its out there, but havent yet figured out what it is yet. Cold Dark Matter (CDM) So, what could dark matter be? As of yet, there are only theories and models. They can actually be slotted into three general groups: hot dark matter (HDM), warm dark matter (WDM), and cold dark matter (CDM). Of the three, CDM has long been the leading candidate for what this missing mass in the universe is. However, some researchers still favor a combination theory, where aspects of all three types of dark matter exist together to make up the total missing mass. CDM is a kind of dark matter that, if it exists, moves slowly compared to the speed of light. It is thought to have been present in the universe since the very beginning and has very likely influenced the growth and evolution of galaxies. as well as the formation of the first stars. Astronomers and physicists think that its most likely some exotic particle that hasnt yet been detected. It very likely has some very specific properties: It would have to lack an interaction with the electromagnetic force. This is fairly obvious, since dark matter is dark. Therefore it doesnt interact with, reflect, or radiate any type of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum.   However, any candidate particle that makes up cold dark matter would have to take into account that it has to interact with a gravitational field. For proof of this, astronomers have noticed that dark matter accumulations in galaxy clusters wield a gravitational influence on light from more distant objects that happens to be passing by. This so-called gravitational lensing effect has been observed many times. Candidate Cold Dark Matter Objects While no known matter meets all of the criteria for cold dark matter, at least three theories have been advanced to explain CDM (if they exist). Weakly Interacting Massive Particles: Also known as WIMPs, these particles, by definition, meet all the needs of CDM. However, no such particle has ever been found to exist. WIMPs have become the catch all term for all cold dark matter candidates, regardless of why the particle is thought to arise.  Axions: These particles possess (at least marginally) the necessary properties of dark matter, but for various reasons are probably not the answer to the question of cold dark matter..MACHOs: This is an acronym for Massive Compact Halo Objects, which are objects like black holes, ancient neutron stars, brown dwarfs and planetary objects. These are all non-luminous and massive. But, because of their large sizes, both in terms of volume and mass, they would be relatively easy to detect by monitoring localized gravitational interactions. However, there are problems with the MACHO hypothesis. The observed motion of galaxies, for instance, is uniform in a way that would be hard to explain if MACHOs supplied the missing mass. Furthermore, star clusters would require a very uniform distribution of such objects within their boundaries. That seems very unlikely. Also, the sheer number of MACHOs that would have to be fairly large in order to explain the missing mass. Right now, the mystery of dark matter doesnt have an obvious solution - yet. Astronomers continue to design experiments to search for these elusive particles. When they do figure out what they are and how they are distributed throughout the universe, they will have unlocked another chapter in our understanding of the cosmos. Edited by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

The Woman Who Explained the Sun and Stars

The Woman Who Explained the Sun and Stars Today, ask any astronomer what the Sun and other stars are made of, and youll be told, Hydrogen and helium and trace amounts of other elements. We know this through a study of sunlight, using a technique called spectroscopy. Essentially, it dissects sunlight into its component wavelengths called a spectrum. Specific characteristics in the spectrum tell astronomers what elements exist in the Suns atmosphere. We see hydrogen, helium, silicon, plus carbon, and other common metals in stars and nebulae throughout the universe.  We have this knowledge thanks to the pioneering work done by Dr. Cecelia Payne-Gaposchkin throughout her career.   The Woman Who Explained the Sun and Stars In 1925, astronomy student Cecelia Payne turned in her doctoral thesis on the topic of stellar atmospheres. One of her most important findings was that the Sun is very rich in hydrogen and helium, more so than astronomers thought. Based on that, she concluded that hydrogen is THE major constituent of all stars, making hydrogen the most abundant element in the universe. It makes sense, since the Sun and other stars fuse hydrogen in their cores to create heavier elements. As they age, stars also fuse those heavier elements to make more complex ones. This process of stellar nucleosynthesis is what populates the universe with many of the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. Its also an important part of the evolution of stars, which Cecelia sought to understand. The idea that stars are made mostly of hydrogen seems like a very obvious thing to astronomers today, but for its time, Dr. Paynes idea was startling. One of her advisors - Henry Norris Russell - disagreed with it and demanded she take it out of her thesis defense. Later, he decided it was a great idea, published it on his own, and got the credit for the discovery. She continued to work at Harvard, but for time, because she was a woman, she received very low pay and the classes she taught werent even recognized in the course catalogs at the time.   In recent decades, the credit for her discovery and subsequent work has been restored to Dr. Payne-Gaposchkin. She is also credited with establishing that stars can be classified by their temperatures, and published more than 150 papers on stellar atmospheres, stellar spectra. She also worked with her husband, Serge I. Gaposchkin, on variable stars. She published five books, and won a number of awards. She spent her entire research career at Harvard College Observatory, eventually becoming the first woman to chair a department at Harvard. Despite successes that would have gained male astronomers at the time incredible praise and honors, she faced gender discrimination throughout much of her life. Nonetheless, she is now celebrated as a brilliant and original thinker for her contributions that changed our understanding of how stars work.   As one of the first of a group of female astronomers at Harvard, Cecelia Payne-Gaposchkin blazed a trail for women in astronomy that many cite as their own inspiration to study the stars. In 2000, a special centenary celebration of her life and science at Harvard drew astronomers from around the world to discuss her life and findings and how they changed the face of astronomy. Largely due to her work and example, as well as the example of women who were inspired by her courage and intellect, the role of women in astronomy is slowly improving, as more select it as a profession.   A Portrait of the Scientist Throughout her Life Dr. Payne-Gaposchkin was born as Cecelia Helena Payne in England on May 10, 1900. She got interested in astronomy after hearing Sir Arthur Eddington describe his experiences on an eclipse expedition in 1919. She then studied astronomy, but because she was female, she was refused a degree from Cambridge. She left England for the United States, where she studied astronomy and got her PhD from Radcliffe College (which is now a part of Harvard University).   After she received her doctorate, Dr. Payne went on to study a number of different types of stars, particularly the very brightest high luminosity stars.  Her main interest was to understand the stellar structure of the Milky Way, and she ultimately studied variable stars in our galaxy and the nearby Magellanic Clouds. Her data played a large role in determining the ways that stars are born, live, and die.   Cecelia Payne married fellow astronomer Serge Gaposchkin in 1934 and they worked together on variable stars and other targets throughout their lives. They had three children. Dr. Payne-Gaposchkin continued teaching at Harvard until 1966, and continued her research into stars with the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (headquartered at Harvards Center for Astrophysics. She died in 1979.

The Social Movement of the 21st Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Social Movement of the 21st Century - Essay Example This most diverse city have gone through in the history throughout from increasing the wave of immigration from Asia and Latin America to America’s counterculture of Beat Generation, Hippies in Haight-Ashbury, and the gay rights movement, and experienced many various progressive social activism. In 1950s, there were the civil rights movement that black people appealed to for liberation. In 60-70s, there was the woman leap that women appealed to for liberation and ecoactivity as for 80-90s. In our time, in the latter half of the twentieth century, the term "globalization was coined, and this leads us to answer the question; what would be the ideal social movement of the 21st century? Globalization encouraged the development of networks, identities and opportunities of organizations across borders. For the matter, even when social movements never place a toe in transnational waters, the fact that their societies are affected by globalization makes their domestic actions part of global civil society. Some of have begun to posit the development of a whole new spectrum of transnational social movements; others have focused on one particular movement like human rights, the environment, or the concerns of indigenous peoples; still others focus on cultural forms, deducing from the collapse of extinct meta-narratives a groping across borders towards new cultural codes and connections. To the extent that many such networks continue to appear, we can expect to see more boomerangs whizzing across transnational space. However, it is yet unclear how they relate to the existing domestic system, to international organizations, or to domestic social actors in their "target": Do they depend indirectly on the power of the domestic social networks that they come from? Do they depend on the support of international organizations? If so, how far beyond the policies of these organizations can their campaigns go? Are they

The Cheesecake Factory Marketing Plan Research Paper

The Cheesecake Factory Marketing Plan - Research Paper Example This essay discusses that the Cheesecake Factory is one of the successful American stories. The company has bagged some awards like the 2010 Zagat award for best dessert and best salads, 2010 Halo gold award for the best cause marketing event, etc. The Cheesecake Factory is planning to expand its business over the next five years in around five countries such as United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Qatar in the Middle East and North Africa, Europe, Russia, and Turkey. The country where the Cheesecake Factory can trade in is Europe. Europe market is expected to grow at an annual growth rate of 0.37% in 2008-2011. The top companies are expected to supply at a rate of 23%. The largest market is Germany with a total share of 25%. The company deals in with bakery products. They produce good quality of cheesecakes and involve a lot of innovation in their products. The new product to be launched is the ‘Green Tea Cheesecake’. The company target market is people who love to have bakery products, dessert. The environment of the hotel is such which makes customers love the place and its offerings. It s target audience is consumers right from a kid to elders people. The US has always experienced a deficit in the bakery products. Its trade deficit was large with Canada and Europe. The condition improved in 2002 where the import value stood at $685 million. Since then the US market has been growing in terms of bakery products. Since the trade condition has improved, the company can take advantage and expand its business in countries where the trade conditions has improved. The company has been dealing in bakery products, and is planning to expand in other countries. The best option would be to expand in Europe. The company is a sole proprietary. It started of its business in the year 1978 and till date it has been among the top most company. The factory was started by Oscar and Evelyn Overton and eventually it was handed by their son David. David founded The Cheesecake Factory restaurant in Beverly Hills, California. Marketing Plan The European market produces 25millions of bread each year with the industrial plant share of 8 million tons. The craft bakers represent the bread production for about 48% of the total volume. The plant bakeries have a market share of 75% to 80% of market share. The fastest growing sector is the in store bakeries, as the retail market is booming and the retailers gain a market share (The Federation of Bakers, 2007). The retail bakery market in Europe was estimated to be 65.5 billion by 2000. There has been a variation in the European countries. In states like Italy and Sweden, the market grew from 12% to 17% in 2000. But in large markets like France and Germany, it grew only by 4% and 3% respectively. The per capita consumption in Europe is generally high as compared to other countries (Payne, 2003, p.25). There has been a good trend of bakery market in Europe. Thus the Cheesecake Factory would be able to adopt itself in the European market. The market has a good opportunity and the potential to grow is also high in the market. The industry is of bakery product, therefore there is no barrier to enter and exit. The European market is an open market. The barriers for entry are low. The European

A Review on Lifeboat Ethics Essay Example for Free

A Review on Lifeboat Ethics Essay Lifeboat ethics: the case against helping the poor is a famous essay written by Garret Hardin, a human ecologist in 1974. This article aims to re examine the lifeboat ethics which was developed by the author to support his controversial proposal. In the theory, the world is compared to a lifeboat with a carrying capacity of 60. There are totally 50 people on board, representing comparatively rich nations, while the 100 others swimming in the ocean outside the lifeboat stands for the poor nations. To solve the dilemma of whether the swimmers should be allowed to climb aboard at the risk of lifeboat’s safety, Hardin suggested that no admission should be granted to boat, or to interpret it in a straight way, no humanitarian aids should be offered to the poor countries. Regardless of the additional factors which the author took into consideration from the real world in the essay, in my opinion, the basic metaphor itself is questionable. Firstly, the status of the lifeboat is not an accurate reflection of reality. Arguably, natural resources of the earth are finite, however, this does not equal to the scarcity of resources in the control of the rich nations. On the contrary, nowadays in the developed countries, what the rich have used is out of proportion to their actual needs, which not only leads to colossal waste each year but also creates disposal problems. A familiar example is the popularity of losing weight among the western world, which is not solely a way of pursing beauty but also a clear indication of the growing number of obese people who consume food excessively. In contrast, in the third world especially poverty-stricken nations like Ethiopia, millions of people are filled with untold suffering. They drag themselves on the street from day to day, begging for only a slice of stale bread. Due to the unfair distribution of resources caused by the affluent people’s favorable political position, most rich nations currently obtain more than enough resources and they are still casting their greedy eyes on the untapped poor regions. In the light of the facts above, in the lifeboat metaphor people on board actually occupy  more room than normal and the real carrying capacity of a lifeboat is more than 60. With no admission given to those swimmers who are in need, the room is not allocated to each according to his needs, a principle the author cited in explanation of the rationale behind the lifeboat ethics. The second doubtful point is related to Hardin’s computation of conscience. In defense of the survivors’ guilt arising from not helping the poor, he claimed that â€Å"the net result of conscience-stricken people giving up their unjustly held seats is the elimination of that sort of conscience from the lifeboat†. He defined guilty about one’s good luck as a type of conscience and the newcomer’s lack of guilt about the rich people’s loss as conscience drain; but the author deliberately omitted the morality of rich people’s indifference to the poor asking for help. Counting the negative effects on total conscience in the lifeboat if no rescue is attempted, the final solution to the lifeboat dilemma might be changed. Essentially, the author’s negligence of social injustice against impoverished people and the ethical issue indifference is just a result of his bias for the rich countries. To improve the general population quality, the author repeatedly emphasized the necessity of reproduction control in poor nations and increasing the proportion of rich nation’s population. This suggestion in fact is based on the assumption that the people in rich nations are innately superior to their counterparts in poor countries, which is an apparent violation of the creed that everyone is born equal. In conclusion, the poor people should not be the sacrifice of the population growth in the developed regions. Logic and rigorous as the essay Lifeboat ethics: the case against helping the poor may appear to be, the author wrote more on behalf of the countries on board, group of which he belonged to. The author urged people to get rid of sentiment and make rational decisions, but ironically he himself deceived his mind with prejudice and sense of superiority.

The Impact of ICT on Manufacturing :: ICT Essays

The Impact of ICT on Manufacturing Acknowledgements: This report has been done with the help of my teacher, friend & obviously with the help of ICT* (Internet). I researched through the Internet & found many helpful sites to complete my report. Search engines such as www.google.com has helped me to find the relevant sites for my report. I used some information from http://www.thekjs.essex.sch.uk/yates/it08_-_9.htm to complete my report. There are also some other sites from which the information has been taken. I have also acquired* some information from the PC World magazine to learn about the different soft wares that are used in world of manufacturing. Contents page ------------- Summary: In this report I found out the uses, advantages & disadvantages of ICT. They are listed below in their respective categories. I mainly concentrated on the Manufacturing* section where the ICT is used extensively. I have found the different ways in which the Industries work now days. ICT has improved the communication technology the way the different companies interact with each other & with their respected customers. ICT has brought the World to its feet. There is no place where ICT is never used or not being used. I have found vast amount of information with the help of ICT to complete my report. I have found how companies use ICT to manufacture the products in bulk with less effort & time waste. The accuracy of each product made is exactly the way it was designed on the computer. I have discovered some soft wares, which help in the design of the product & also manufacture them automatically. These are CAD/CAM* soft wares. I have concluded my report by saying that ICT has revolutionised the Manufacturing sector. Terms of reference: This report I for the portfolio Unit 12 of the GNVQ course following the criteria laid down by OCR. The deadline given to me for completing this report was 31/01/2003 & I have managed to stick to that deadline. The overall purpose of my report is to make sure that I have met the requirements to achieve a high grade. Methodology: I found out the task from my teacher & practised it on the Thomas Telford Website using banking scenarios. After my practise session I decided on the topic on which I would be doing my report. I decided it to be on 'Manufacturing'. I chose this section as ICT has changed the way of production & manufacturing. I started my research on 'The impact of ICT on Manufacturing' on the Internet, magazines, and books & also took some assistance from my parents on what they think about ICT changing the way we work & interact* with the

Boeing Australia Case Study

Executive Summary Barilla is operating in a very old-fashioned distribution system that needs to be changed. Implementing this new JITD will increase efficiency across the supply chain. The system will reduce manufacturing costs, increase supply chain visibility, increase distributors’ dependence on Barilla, establish better relationship with distributors, reduce inventory level and most importantly improve manufacturing planning and forecasting using objective data. This JITD will see Barilla’s supply chain synchronized from manufacturing to end – users.Strategically, the best decision for Barilla is to implement the JITD program. This will allow for greater capability and flexibility to respond to inputs from end-consumers. In the JITD system, each distributor would provide Barilla with data from products that they shipped to retailers in previous days as well as current stock levels for each Barilla SKU. This data would then be used to make forecasting and rep lenishment decisions. The will result in a smoother running operating system and excellent customer service.To prove the credibility of JITD and win over apprehensive customers the involvement of top management will be employed. Within the next six months Maggali and top management team will analyze daily shipment data of the distribution chain. Next a database of historical and present demand patterns of distributors will be created and shipments will be simulated with JITD in place. This system will reduce stock out rates and inventory levels while increasing service levels. Next, experiments will be run at the Pedrignano depot and then the Milano depot.This will establish the credibility of JITD and win over distributors and retailers who are apprehensive in buying into this new system. Approximately ten top managers, from customer service managers to vice presidents, logistics, purchasing, sales and marketing and information technology managers will be involved in the decision m aking, implementation and monitoring of this new system. This will prove credibility of JITD and convince customers that change is inevitable and in this this case the benefits will be mutual. IssuesDeciding whether or not the Just In Time Distribution (JITD) model should be implemented into Barilla†s operations. Barilla is suffering from escalating operational inefficiencies. The company is being burdened by demand fluctuations in its manufacturing and distribution systems. Also, this large weekly variation in distributors orders is increasing overhead costs. Trying to convince internal and external customers of the benefits of JITD Barilla’s customers are unwilling to give up authority to place orders as they please.The lack of faith in Barilla’s inventory management also made some customers reluctant in giving detailed sales data so that Barilla could improve its forecasting demands. Customers perceived this JITD move as a quest by Barilla to transfer power to themselves. Internal customers are also resistant to this change as they as they view this concept to be infeasible and or dangerous. Environmental and Root Cause Analysis There is a growing burden that demand fluctuations are imposing on the company’s manufacturing and distribution system.Vitali has suggested for years that the company implement this innovative JITD which is modeled off JIT manufacturing. Vitali proposed that rather than follow the practice of delivering products to Barilla’s distributors on the basis of whatever orders distributors placed with the company, Barilla’s own logistics organization would instead specify delivery quantities that would more effectively meet end users’ needs and would also more evenly distribute the workload on Barilla’s manufacturing and logistics. This was heavily resisted both internally and externally.External people are saying that Barilla wants power over its distributors and wants to manage their inventory for them. On the other hand, the internal sales and marketing people thinks this JITD is unworkable and will reduce their workload so they see it as a threat and as a result they are putting up a resistance. The variability in demand is as a result of lack of forecasting systems or sophisticated analytical tools at the distributors end. Orders for Barilla’s dry products swing from week to week and such extreme demand strains Barilla’s manufacturing and logistics operations.For example, the specific sequence of pasta production necessitated by the tight heat and humidity specifications in the tunnel kiln made it difficult to quickly produce a particular pasta that had been sold out due to unexpectedly high demand. In addition, holding sufficient finished goods inventories to meet distributors order requirements was extremely expensive when weekly demand fluctuated so much and was so difficult to forecast. Advertising and trade promotions are also intensifying the resistance to implementing this JITD.Distributors have become accustomed to price discounts through volume orders, promotional activities and transportation. Barilla’s sales strategy relied on the use of trade promotions to push products into the grocery distribution network. Distributors looks forward to these promotions and also sales people within Barilla looks forward to giving distributors discounts in this very old-fashioned distribution system. Alternatives and/or Options Implementing the JITD system would prove beneficial to the company and its overall supply chain management.Benefits of this JITD would be reduced manufacturing costs and inventory levels, better relationship with distributors due to increased supply chain visibility and distributor’s dependence on Barilla and overall improvement in manufacturing planning using objective data collected. For sales people this would be a selling tool rather than a threat to sales. Distributors will also see an improved fill rate to retail stores, additional service from Barilla without any extra cost and reduced inventory holding costs.Disadvantages to these are lack of infrastructure to handle JITD, risks of inability to adjust shipments quickly to stock-outs, cost benefits uncertainties, unconvinced distributors and reduction in responsibilities for Sales Representatives. Recommendation It is recommended that Barilla implement this JITD system in its supply chain. The system will provide customers with additional service at no extra cost. It will also improve Barilla’s visibility with the trade and make distributors more dependent on the company.This dependence or vendor management inventory (VMI) system will improve relationships between Barilla and distributors. More important, is the information regarding the supply at the distributors’ warehouses would provide the company with objective data that would allow for improvement in planning procedures and forecasting. In a ddition, distributors will not only improve their fill rates to retail stores but reduce their inventory holding costs. Sales and marketing people will realize that this JITD will be a selling tool rather than a threat to sales.This in the long run improves overall performance in operations. Implementation Maggiali needs to look at JITD as not only a logistics program but as a company wide effort and get top management from both sides involved in decision -making and teamwork. With top management on board, the first implementation will be done at Barilla’s largest DO (organized distributor) the Cortese. Within the next six months Maggali and top management team will analyze daily shipment data of the distribution chain.Next a database of historical and present demand patterns of distributors will be created and shipments will be simulated with JITD in place. This system will reduce stock out rates and inventory levels while increasing service levels. Next, experiments will be run at the Pedrignano depot and then the Milano depot. This will establish the credibility of JITD and win over distributors and retailers who are apprehensive in buying into this new system. An information system will also be implemented to communicate with all customers.SKUs will be barcoded so that they are easily identifiable; that is Barilla’s code and distributor/customer codes. Using this coding system, the company will be able to receive information through any code and also reduce the impact of internal changes in products on DO systems. Barilla’s forecasting systems will be under improvement so that the company can make good use of information received. Monitor and Control There has to be credibility of this new venture in order to convince customers both internally and externally to sign on.In order to reap success in any new initiative top management have to be involved. A team of approximately ten top managers including managing directors, marketing and s ales managers, logistics managers, purchasing managers, vice presidents and information technology managers will monitor the implementation of this new initiative, JITD. Each day customers will send information to Barilla using EDI (electronic data exchange) systems. This information will include; customer codes, previous day’s stock-outs, previous days sales and advance orders for future retailer promotions.This will help Barilla to improve internal operations for the company and customers alike, now that Barilla will be responsible for determining quantities and delivery schedules. This will see a reduction in inventory levels, distribution costs, manufacturing costs, improved responsiveness to distributors demands. Overall efficiencies in the company’s operations will be evident in every link of the supply chain. Monitoring and control will be an ongoing process to minimize inefficiencies in operations.